Paper 10

Abstract

The concept of life has the different meanings in Buddhist philosophy and biological science. Biology defines Life through observable and measurable characteristics and Life is sustained by genetic mechanisms, biochemical interactions, and evolutionary processes, although viruses, bacterial spores, embryos, and stem cells challenge these criteria. While increasingly interdisciplinary approach, biology remains limited to empirical and testable domains, thereby excluding metaphysical claims about rebirth or post-mortem existence. In contrast, Buddhist Abhidhamma understands life as a psycho-physical continuum devoid of any fixed self, and their lineages(Kamma), extending from conception through death and rebirth. This study aims to comparatively examine Buddhist and biological concepts of life and their implications for medical ethics finding both convergent and divergent points to contribute a more comprehensive understanding of life leading to peaceful society. A qualitative comparative and philosophical method was employed through textual analysis of Buddhist Abhidhamma together with relevant concepts from biomedical ethics. Both perspectives reject static essentialism, instead conceptualizing life as dynamic and relational. While biology emphasizes material causation, Buddhism integrates biological, psychological, and ethical dimensions, highlighting moral responsibility and liberation from suffering. Buddhism distinguishes living beings from living things; therefore, the use of antibiotics, antivirals, and disinfectants against microorganisms is not considered intentional killing. Life is understood to begin at conception with the arising of rebirth consciousness under appropriate physical conditions; consequently, contraception before conception differs ethically from abortion after conception. Biological death is determined by irreversible loss of vital functions, whereas Buddhist Abhidhamma emphasizes cessation of mental and material life faculties. Euthanasia is therefore considered ethically impermissible when intentional killing occurs. Intention is also central to ethical evaluation of animal experimentation, food consumption. IVF, cloning, and stem-cell research raise additional questions concerning the conditions necessary for the emergence and continuation of life. Hypnotherapy proved uncountable lives and effects of past memories or actions (karma). Meditation is a practical field to observe positive and negative feedback of hormonal or biochemical effects. The study concludes that biological and Buddhist perspectives provide complementary dimensions of understanding life. Biology offers empirical criteria, while Buddhism provides a philosophical and ethical framework based on kamma. Integrating these perspectives may contribute to a broader and more ethically sensitive framework for contemporary medical practice.

Keywords: Concept of Life, Theravāda Abhidhamma, Medical Ethics, Consciousness and Rebirth, Bioethics or Interdisciplinary Approach

Introduction

The concept of life has long been a subject of inquiry in both science and philosophy. Despite remarkable advances in biological research, defining exactly what constitutes life remains a complex and contested issue. Contemporary biology generally identifies living organisms through characteristics such as cellular organization, metabolism, growth, reproduction, homeostasis, responsiveness to stimuli, and the capacity for evolution. However, the application of these criteria is not always straightforward. Certain entities, including viruses, bacterial spores, embryos, stem cells, and artificially manipulated biological materials, challenge conventional biological definitions and raise important questions concerning the boundaries between life and non-life. These challenges have become increasingly significant in modern medicine and biotechnology, where decisions regarding the beginning and end of life often carry profound ethical implications.

Buddhist philosophy approaches the concept of life from a fundamentally different perspective. Rather than focusing exclusively on biological processes, Buddhism, particularly as explained in the Abhidhamma tradition, understands life as a psycho-physical continuum composed of consciousness (citta), mental factors (cetasika), material phenomena (rūpa), and the causal influence of kamma. Life is not merely a biological event but a dynamic process extending from conception through death and continuing through rebirth according to the principle of dependent arising (paṭiccasamuppāda). Within this framework, consciousness plays a central role in defining sentient existence, moral responsibility, and the continuity of life across successive existences. Consequently, Buddhist explanations of life and death differ significantly from those found in contemporary biological science.

The differences between biological and Buddhist conceptions of life have important implications for medical ethics. Advances in reproductive medicine, organ transplantation, life-support technologies, genetic engineering, stem-cell research, cloning, and end-of-life care have generated ethical dilemmas that cannot always be resolved through scientific knowledge alone. Questions concerning when life begins, when death occurs, whether certain medical interventions constitute the destruction of life, and how moral responsibility should be assessed require philosophical and ethical reflection in addition to biological understanding. In societies influenced by Buddhist thought, ethical judgments regarding abortion, euthanasia, antimicrobial treatment, animal experimentation, dietary practices, and emerging biomedical technologies are often informed by Buddhist principles concerning consciousness, intention, compassion, and non-harming.

Although numerous studies have examined biological definitions of life and Buddhist ethical teachings separately, comparatively fewer studies have systematically analyzed how these two frameworks conceptualize life and death and how their differences influence ethical decision-making in healthcare and medicine. A comparative investigation is therefore necessary to clarify areas of agreement and divergence and to explore the practical implications of each perspective for contemporary medical practice.

This study aims to comparatively examine the Buddhist and biological concepts of life and death and to explore their implications for medical ethics. Specifically, it analyzes issues related to antimicrobial treatment, contraception and abortion, certification of death, euthanasia, medical research, consumption of eggs and meat, hypnotherapy, in-vitro fertilization (IVF), cloning, stem-cell therapy, and organ transplantation. Through a qualitative and philosophical analysis of Buddhist Abhidhamma literature alongside contemporary biological and biomedical concepts, the study seeks to contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of life that integrates scientific knowledge with ethical reflection. By doing so, it offers insights into how biological science and Buddhist philosophy can complement one another in addressing complex ethical questions arising in modern medicine and healthcare, leading to peaceful societies.

Purpose of the Study

The primary purpose of this study is to comparatively examine the concept of life in Buddhist philosophy, particularly Theravāda Abhidhamma, and in modern biological science, and to explore the implications of these perspectives for contemporary medical ethics. While biology explains life through observable, measurable, and empirical processes such as genetic mechanisms, biochemical interactions, and evolution, Buddhism understands life as a dynamic psycho-physical continuum governed by consciousness, kamma (karma), and rebirth. By analyzing both perspectives, this study seeks to identify areas of convergence and divergence and to develop a broader understanding of life that incorporates both scientific and ethical dimensions.

Specifically, the study aims to:

1. To investigate how life is defined and understood in modern biological science and in Theravāda Buddhist Abhidhamma philosophy.

2. To compare the biological view of life as a material and evolutionary process with the Buddhist understanding of life as a psycho-physical continuum extending through conception, death, and rebirth.

3. To examine the role of consciousness, kamma, and rebirth in the Buddhist concept of life and contrast these with biological explanations that are limited to empirical and testable phenomena.

4. To explore the ethical implications of differing concepts of life for contemporary medical issues, including abortion, contraception, euthanasia, animal experimentation, food consumption, in vitro fertilization (IVF), cloning, stem-cell research, organ transplantation, and the use of antibiotics, antivirals, and disinfectants.

5. To analyze Buddhist criteria for the beginning and end of life, particularly the arising of rebirth consciousness at conception and the cessation of mental and material life faculties at death, and compare them with biological and medical criteria.

6. To investigate the significance of intention (cetanā) in Buddhist ethical evaluation and its application to medical decision-making and bioethical practices.

7. To examine claims concerning past-life memories, hypnotherapy, karma, and meditation as they relate to understanding consciousness, human behavior, and the relationship between mental and physiological processes.

8. To identify complementary insights from biology and Buddhism that may contribute to a more comprehensive and ethically sensitive framework for medical ethics and healthcare practice.

9. To promote interdisciplinary dialogue between science, philosophy, and religion in order to foster greater understanding of life, human dignity, moral responsibility, and the reduction of suffering in society.

Ultimately, this study seeks to demonstrate that biological and Buddhist perspectives are not necessarily contradictory but can provide complementary dimensions of understanding life. By integrating empirical scientific knowledge with Buddhist ethical and philosophical insights, the research aims to contribute to the development of a more holistic approach to medical ethics and to support the cultivation of a peaceful and compassionate society.

Research Method

This study adopted a qualitative, comparative, and philosophical research methodology to explore the Buddhist concept of life and its relevance to contemporary medical ethics. The research was based primarily on textual analysis of Buddhist canonical sources, especially the Abhidhamma Piṭaka and related commentaries, together with literature on biomedical ethics and modern medical practice. Primary Buddhist texts concerning life, consciousness, conception, death, rebirth, kamma, and moral responsibility were critically examined. Key Abhidhamma concepts, including citta, cetasika, rūpa, jīvitindriya, dependent origination, and conditional relations, were analyzed to understand the Buddhist definition of life. A comparative approach was used to evaluate similarities and differences between Buddhist and biomedical perspectives on life, death, and consciousness. Selected medical issues were examined through Buddhist ethical principles, including intention, non-harming, and moral responsibility. The study employed critical philosophical reflection to assess the ethical significance of these concepts for contemporary medical decision-making and bioethical discussions.

Results of the Study

The comparative analysis of the concept of life in Theravāda Buddhist Abhidhamma and modern biological science revealed both significant similarities and fundamental differences, particularly in relation to medical ethics. The findings demonstrate that while biology and Buddhism approach life from different epistemological foundations, their perspectives can complement one another in addressing contemporary bioethical issues.

1. Comparative Understanding of Life

The study found that both biological science and Buddhist philosophy reject the notion of a permanent, unchanging essence of life. Biology understands life as a dynamic process maintained through genetic regulation, metabolism, adaptation, reproduction, and evolution. Likewise, Buddhist Abhidhamma explains life as a continuously changing psycho-physical process (nāma-rūpa) conditioned by dependent origination (paṭiccasamuppāda) and kamma. In both perspectives, life is viewed as relational and process-oriented rather than static.

However, a major difference lies in their explanatory frameworks. Biology limits itself to observable and measurable phenomena and therefore does not address metaphysical questions concerning rebirth, karma, or post-mortem existence. In contrast, Buddhist Abhidhamma interprets life as a continuum extending beyond a single lifetime through the process of rebirth, conditioned by previous intentional actions (kamma).

2. Consciousness and the Continuity of Life

The analysis revealed that consciousness occupies a central role in the Buddhist concept of life. According to Abhidhamma, life begins when rebirth consciousness (paṭisandhi-citta) arises in a suitable physical basis at conception. Biological science, however, explains conception through the fusion of sperm and ovum and subsequent embryological development without reference to consciousness or karmic continuity.

The findings indicate that Buddhism provides an ethical and philosophical explanation for the continuity of life, whereas biology provides a physiological explanation for the emergence and development of living organisms. These approaches address different dimensions of the same phenomenon.

3. Beginning of Life and Reproductive Ethics

The study found that Buddhist ethics considers life to begin at conception when consciousness and material conditions unite. Consequently, abortion after conception is generally regarded as the destruction of human life and is ethically problematic. By contrast, contraception prior to conception does not involve the termination of an existing life and is therefore ethically distinguishable from abortion.

Modern biological science identifies conception as a significant biological event but remains divided regarding the moral status of embryos at different developmental stages. This difference demonstrates the importance of underlying philosophical assumptions in shaping ethical judgments concerning reproductive technologies and medical interventions.

4. Living Beings, Microorganisms, and Medical Treatment

A significant finding concerns the Buddhist distinction between living beings and living things. Although microorganisms possess biological life, the use of antibiotics, antivirals, disinfectants, and other medical treatments aimed at eliminating harmful microorganisms is generally not regarded as intentional killing in Buddhist ethics because there is no deliberate intention to destroy sentient beings. Instead, the primary intention is the preservation of health and the prevention of suffering.

This finding suggests that Buddhist ethics can accommodate modern medical practices while maintaining its commitment to non-harming (ahiṃsā).

5. Death and End-of-Life Ethics

The study found important differences between biological and Buddhist definitions of death. In biology and contemporary medicine, death is generally determined by the irreversible cessation of vital bodily functions, particularly brain function, circulation, and respiration. In Buddhist Abhidhamma, death occurs with the cessation of both mental and material life faculties, marking the end of one life continuum and the beginning of another through rebirth.

As a result, euthanasia is generally considered ethically impermissible in Buddhism when it involves the intentional ending of life. The decisive factor is intention (cetanā), which is understood as the basis of moral responsibility and karmic consequences.

6. Intention as the Basis of Medical Ethics

One of the most significant findings is the central role of intention in Buddhist ethical analysis. Whereas biomedical ethics often emphasizes autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice, Buddhist ethics evaluates actions largely according to the intentions that motivate them and the suffering they produce or reduce.

This principle was found to be relevant to issues such as euthanasia, animal experimentation, food consumption, organ donation, and clinical decision-making. Actions performed with compassion and aimed at reducing suffering are evaluated differently from actions motivated by greed, hatred, or ignorance.

7. Animal Experimentation and Food Ethics

The findings indicate that Buddhist ethics does not evaluate actions solely by outcomes but also by mental motivation. Animal experimentation raises ethical concerns because it may involve intentional harm to sentient beings. Similarly, food consumption is assessed according to the degree of intentional participation in killing and the cultivation of compassion toward living beings.

These findings suggest that Buddhist ethics broadens the scope of medical ethics by including moral responsibility toward non-human life forms.

8. Emerging Biomedical Technologies

The study found that IVF, cloning, embryo manipulation, and stem-cell research raise complex ethical questions from both biological and Buddhist perspectives. Biology focuses primarily on technical feasibility, safety, and effectiveness, whereas Buddhism additionally considers the presence of consciousness, karmic continuity, and the moral consequences of intervention.

The analysis suggests that Buddhist ethical principles can provide valuable guidance in evaluating emerging biomedical technologies that challenge conventional definitions of life and personhood.

9. Meditation, Hypnotherapy, and the Study of Consciousness

The findings indicate that meditation serves as a practical method for observing the relationship between mental states and physiological processes. Existing scientific studies demonstrate measurable effects of meditation on hormonal regulation, stress reduction, neurological activity, and overall well-being.

The study also reviewed claims concerning hypnotherapy and past-life memories. Within Buddhist philosophy, such experiences are interpreted as possible evidence of karmic continuity and rebirth. However, from a scientific perspective, these claims remain controversial because they cannot yet be conclusively verified through standard empirically methods. Therefore, they should be approached with critical and interdisciplinary investigation.

10. Integrative Contribution to Medical Ethics

Overall, the study found that biology and Buddhism provide complementary rather than mutually exclusive perspectives on life. Biology contributes empirical knowledge concerning the mechanisms and functions of living organisms, while Buddhism contributes ethical, psychological, and philosophical insights concerning consciousness, moral responsibility, suffering, and human flourishing.

The integration of these perspectives offers a broader framework for medical ethics that respects scientific evidence while also addressing moral and existential dimensions of life. Such an interdisciplinary approach may contribute to more compassionate healthcare practices, responsible biomedical innovation, and the promotion of a peaceful and ethically conscious society.

Discussion

• Prescription of Antibiotics & Antivirals and Utilization of Disinfectants Against Bacteria and Viruses;

While Biological criteria to define life are useful, they are not universally applicable. For example; Viruses possess only genetic materials that exhibit life-like properties for mutation of new infectious strains and evolve through natural selection lacking cellular structure and independent metabolism. Bacteria undergo just binary fission of cellular division like plants and trees for growth, not meiosis and mitosis. Dormant spores of bacteria also show minimal metabolic activity. These bacteria and viruses are the most debated entities in biology. Some scientists consider viruses “at the edge of life”.

Their classification depends largely on whether replication or metabolism is prioritized in defining life. These entities challenge the framework of life. No single characteristic is sufficient to define life conclusively. These pathogens never pass away having no life span like living beings. These have neither mind, mind-born matter nor kamma, Kamma-borne matter. Therefore, viruses are not considered as living beings but just living things. Also, Prescription of Antibiotics, Antivirals and Utilization of Disinfectants against bacteria and viruses are not considered as committing of killing of living beings while using of insecticide in agriculture and healthcare of public is an offense of killing of living beings being.

(2)Prescription of Oral Contraceptive Pills, Implantation of Intra-Uterine Contraceptive Devices (IUCD) and Procedures of Abortion;

New life begins with the formation of a being. Embryological concept of life challenges the simplistic definitions, as the earliest stages of development, particularly the zygote and pre-implantation embryo that exhibit unique features that blur the boundaries between potential and actual life. This concept integrates scientific understanding with philosophical reflection and is the relevant, comparative insight from Buddhist thought. The embryo initially lacks independent metabolism and homeostasis, relying on maternal support, yet it demonstrates intrinsic organization and developmental potential. However, the debate persists regarding whether the zygote constitutes a full organism or a potential organism having inherent capacity to become a fully developed human, not an actual human organism with current biological status as a living organism. Its development, dependent on maternal environment raises philosophical questions about individuality and dependence. Another issue of individuality and identity also arises. At what point does a distinct individual exist and begin in twin embryo.

In addition, there is other disputed concept on beginning of life that fetal life begins around three to four weeks or months of gestation. The stages of embryo often used in this ethical debate to define “meaningful life is the initiation of cardiac activity, the formation of the neural tube and the development of sensory organs”.

In other hand, the subject of Buddhist Abhidhamma discovers that being alive goes on in a continuing manner from one life to the next life and there is no in-between without incarnation or migration of soul. Immediately after death, the rebirth consciousness (paṭisandhi-viññāṇa) appears due to the mental impetus of the past existence, whether there is a physical base in the next existence or not. The death-proximate kamma is the bridge between death and rebirth, which is how rebirth-consciousness occurs. Therefore, the embryo right after fertilization is alive according to Buddhism.

To give an example: A man dreams of strange events and goes on thinking about them when he wakes up. The strange dream is like the object that one clung to in the past. Remembering his dream is like the object of rebirth consciousness. There is no intention or interruption between ending of dream and remembering of that dream. Furthermore, Buddhist points out that life is not merely biological but psycho-physical. The arising of life involves both Physical body (rūpa) and Consciousness (viññāṇa), the conception requires three conditions:

1- Fusion of sperm from paternity side and egg from maternity side through sexual relationship or union of parents,

2- Fertile period of mother,

3- Appearance of rebirth consciousness in that zygote just as implanting of seed into fertilized ground (That consciousness comes to arise depending one’s past

actions).

Thus, life begins not solely at fertilization but through a dependent arising (paṭiccasamuppāda) of physical and mental factors conditioned by one of actions from the previous lives. This Buddhist perspective aligns with current Philosophical and Biological idea that life is a process rather than a fixed entity, emphasizing continuity rather than a single origin point.

In sum, abortion at any age of gestation is considered as the deliberate destruction of a life, which is a serious unwholesome deed of killing resulting in being aborted oneself in the future, or being killed early, or being diseased in one’s life according to Buddha’s law of Kamma (action).

Therefore, termination of pregnancy at intra-natal or gestational time by giving post-coital pills or any procedures of abortion including therapeutic means, should be avoided at all while any contraceptive medications and procedure that prevent the fusion of sperm and egg of parents before conception, are not be considered as an evil deed of killing and then could be performed being entirely guiltless by medical professionals.

(3) Death Certificate;

According to Biological Perspective, death is defined more precisely as the irreversible loss of the body’s essential functions, especially those that maintain life. Death occurs when not only cardiopulmonary death (Permanent cessation of circulation and breathing) but also neurological death (Irreversible loss of all brain function, including the brainstem) with irreversibility serving as the essential criterion distinguishing death from reversible states of physiological failure.

These irreversible cellular damages eventually lead to breakdown of cell membranes, enzyme release and tissue decay and then system-wide failure (firstly neurological system). Key features as death certificates used by medical doctors are no consciousness, no brainstem reflexes (e.g., pupils don’t respond to light), no heart-beat, no ability to breathe independently. Even if machines keep the heart and lungs working, a person with complete brain death is legally and medically considered dead in many countries. In other side, Death is defined as cutting off of life faculty including mental and material life faculties, cessation of consciousness and disappearance of internal body heat (usama tejo) according to Buddhist Abhidhamma.

In accordance with doctrine of Dependent Origination, death is conditioned by aging and deceased processes and arises as consequence of rebirth. Doctrine of Conditional Relation also demonstrates the power of past kamma or action produces a rebirth rotted by craving of existence of life and ignorance. That power sustains continuity of whole life and then disappears totally at one time at when death appears and one’s life faculty of mind and matter with consciousness of present life cuts off.

Therefore, Buddhism could explain the consideration of death more accurately and deeply rather than Medical Biology. However, its features of death could not be determined by any ordinary one through experimental tools.

(4) The Practice of Euthanasia;

Ultimately, life is best understood as a continuum of organized, self-sustaining, evolving and emergent system of components from biological standpoint. This concept of life is not merely a scientific definition but a multidimensional framework that integrates biology, philosophy, and ethics.

Death is enhanced by cutting off that continuum of life process. Euthanasia makes a patient die before the end of his or her natural life-span through their interventions. One who asks a doctor to practice euthanasia and the doctor who gave medication for dying of patient, are both guilty of the offence of killing and have broken the precept to abstain from killing living beings. On seeing the unbearable pain of a patient, the first intention is to relieve him or her from suffering, but if practice euthanasia, the second and last intentions will be those of killing.

The second and last intentions of killing are caused by the first intention of sense of pitting and rejection on seeing it through conditional relation of strong dependence. From Buddhist point of view, five factors are necessary to fulfil the offence of killing living beings (pānātipāta).

1. It is a living being.

2. One must know that it is a living being.

3. There must be the intention to kill.

4. A verbal or physical effort must be made to kill that being.

5. The living being must die due to that effort.

If all five factors are present, then the offence of killing is committed. Here

in that case of Euthanasia, the children are guilt of one of the five heinous crimes

(ānantariya kamma).

(5) Discoveries and Inventions;

In making these medical advances they had to kill monkeys, rabbits, birds, and other living beings. The progress has been made in fields of surgery and medicine. However, no mind can occur on two different objects. It is the researcher’s intention to implement the invention that enables him or her to kill the animals so mercilessly. Thus, the unwholesome process of mind is stronger than the wholesome one the unwholesome result will be greater than the wholesome result.

In Buddha’s teaching it is demonstrated that some good deeds enhance some evil deeds through strong dependence conditional relation. Moreover, a present bad action arises depending on a past good action through the dependent orientation.

(6) Consumption of eggs;

Medical professionals give health education about nourishment to consume all sorts of egg daily. Eating of eggs is biologically more like consuming milk being just animal product than ending a life because most eggs people eat, are unfertilized eggs, neither actual nor potential living beings from biological poin of view. However, most of Vegans avoid all animal products including eggs for reasons of not killing of vegan ethics, but also animal welfare and exploitation that concerns with conditions (suffering) of hens. Moreover, some religions or philosophies (for example: Mahayana Buddhism, James?) may still avoid eggs. Most religions allow eggs, especially if unfertilized. For example: Most

Theravāda Buddhists believe that eating most of eggs is generally not considered as breaking the precept. They see, eating them as acceptable if unfertilized while most Buddhists avoid eating of fertilized eggs because of these are just living beings according to Buddhist Abhidhamma that reveals life begins at time of conception of zygote. Nevertheless, stricter traditions or personal ethics may avoid them either fertilized or unfertilized.

All eggs are living beings or will become chicks?

Does eating eggs involve killing a living being?

Not all eggs become chicks only fertilized ones under the right conditions. That means they were never combined with a rooster’s sperm, so there is no life, no embryo inside—nothing that could develop into a chick. What fertilization depends on how farms handle eggs? In some commercial egg farms hens are kept without roosters and the eggs are almost always unfertilized having no chance of chick development. Whereas in small farms or backyard farms, sometimes hens and roosters are together and eggs may be fertilized. Eggs sold in markets and stores are unfertilized (that means no life, no embryo, no potential chick) because these are bought from commercial farms. What a matter practice of avoiding eggs is a more compassionate personal choice because there are some difficulties to distinguish whether fertilized or unfertilized eggs.

(7) Consumption of meat of living beings;

Medical professionals use to urge to consume both animal meats and vegetables as nutrients for good-health while vegans avoid all animal meats for reasons of not about killing, but also animal welfare. Consumption of animal meat is considered as doing of evil deed by some traditional vegetarians.

In accordance with Buddhism, the life of animals is different from the life of plants in that animal life is a result of the spontaneous stimuli of Kamma, mind, temperature, nutrition, and genetics while plant life caused by just temperature, nutrition. If the animal life has been subtracted by intentional approaches and it dies of unnatural causes, the killer is doing a sin and it counts as murder.

However, if the meat is to be consumed by an uninterested third party who has absolutely no relation to the cause of the killing, he can consume the meat without being defined as a sin. Although Buddhists should not kill living beings, they can eat the meat of animals killed by others, provided they are free from involvement on four counts:

1. They do not kill by their own hand.

2. They do not urge others to kill.

3. They do not condone killing.

4. They do not speak in praise of killing.

Even if Buddhists do not buy meat and fish, non-Buddhists, and even some Buddhists will kill living beings for the sake of a livelihood, they should reflect mindfully while eating to be free from excessive craving. A true Buddhist should be content to eat any kind of food, mindfully reflecting, “I take this food, not for enjoyment, but only for the sake of nutrition and liberation from cycle of suffering of life.”

The aim of Buddhism is to relinquish any craving attaining freedom from any suffering rather than avoiding of eating of meat. Here in this case, physical support and mental satisfaction (Sappāya) by eating meat make one energize to perform the transcendental affairs to overcome all suffering of life. In addition, the Buddha taught His monks not to eat the great meats of animals such as 1. Human, 2. Dog, 3. Horse, 4. Elephant, 5. Leopard, 6. Tiger, 7. Lion, 8. Bear, 9. Ox, 10. Snake even being killed and prepared by others.

Furthermore, He ordered that if one of the five companions is to be feed and donated then all five companions should not eat that meat. Seeing and hearing that animal is being killed for one of companions, and having doubt so, that meat of animal should not be eaten. It should be eaten; it is the taint of the mind and can be considered to commit the saṅghādisesa offense that endowed with mind.

In reflection, medical professionals should advise their cases to consume just the meats that have been killed by others in the aim of not to make themselves

and others feel the sense of guilty of killing.

(8) Hypnotic Therapy;

Hypnotherapy through Psychoanalysis is a guided therapeutic technique that uses a state of focused attention to hypnotic suggestions and deep relaxation or a “trance”. The “trance” is the state of deep sleep through the subconscious or unconscious mind being hypnotized. Sleep workers can walk in a deep sleep or unconscious state. Hypnotherapy is commonly used to help with the specific issues by mental reframing (explaining the patient about the root causes and

modifying mindsets). These issues are Anxiety and stress, Phobias (like fear of flying or public speaking), Smoking cessation, Pain management (including chronic pain), Sleep problems (insomnia), Habit control (nail biting, overeating). It’s often used alongside other approaches like Cognitive Behavioural Therapy, not as a standalone cure, just as Cognitive Hypnotherapy to reinforce cognitive restructuring, enhance relaxation and focus and improve responsiveness to behavioural exercises. Phobias and Hysteria are caused by dissatisfaction or fear hidden in unconscious mind. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), the effect of perception and motivation hidden in series of mind can be rediscovered through hypnotic method. The forgotten memories of childhood and past lives can be accessed and explored in a trance-like state. It is also possible to recognize things that has been completely forgotten when each different part of brain is tapped by electrode.

Abhidhamma also explains the powers of mind including perception and motivation are transformed from one mind to another in one’s mental process through 24 conditional relations. The conscious and unconscious minds presented by Psychologists are the same as Vīthi and Bhaviṅga minds in Buddhist Abhidhamma.

This notion of life as the continuous mental process through many lives aligns with the view of mental process from Biology and make the psychologists widely acknowledge that hypnosis can enable individuals to not only revisit and relive past experiences but also uncover long-buried memories hidden deep within the unconscious mind.

(9) In-Vitro Fertilization (IVF);

In vitro fertilization (IVF) is a medical procedure used to help people conceive a child when natural conception is difficult or unsuccessful. The term “in vitro” literally means “in glass,” refers to the process of fertilizing an egg outside the body in a laboratory. IVF is often used for: Blocked or damaged fallopian tubes, Low sperm count or sperm issues, Ovulation disorders, Unexplained infertility, Same-sex couples or single parents using donor sperm/eggs, Genetic screening (to avoid inherited conditions). IVF can fail for several reasons, and often it is not just one issue but a combination of factors. The process is biologically complex, and even under ideal conditions, success is not guaranteed.

The main reasons for IVF failure are embryo quality (most common cause), Age of the woman, Implantation failure, Sperm quality issues, Uterine problems, Hormonal issues, Laboratory factors, Lifestyle factors, and Unknown causes.

Among these, Unknown causes make the medical professionals perform ongoing research and a single IVF cycle does not guarantee pregnancy. Many people need multiple cycles of IVF under repeated investigations. In some cases, everything looks normal with the best circumstances, yet IVF still fails. It is known as unexplained implantation failure. It keeps the medical professionals interested in Buddhist Philosophy as it is an important reality.

Buddhist Abhidhamma describes the different modes by which life comes into existence. These types of conception of living beings are Womb-born beings (Beings born from a mother’s womb), Egg-born beings (Beings that develop inside eggs), Moisture-born beings (Beings said to arise from moisture or decaying matter), spontaneously arisen beings (Beings that are born instantly without a womb or egg). Three factors needed for the successful conception are union of parents, seasonal period of mother and appearance of rebirth consciousness due to the power of one’s past Kamma (action) from previous life.

IVF may be defined as Moisture-born beings and unexplained implantation failure may be caused by not appearing of appropriate rebirth consciousness if remaining two factors are complete for its conception.

(10) Bio Clone and Stem Cells Therapy;

Human cloning is a form of biological replication, where the genetic material (DNA) of a human is used to create another genetically identical copy human with the same genetic information. However, it is highly controversial, ethically debated, and largely illegal for reproductive purposes today.

Although scientists have successfully cloned animals (like sheep, cows, and mice), creating a fully developed human clone is not currently possible in practice. There appears to be technical, ethical, legal, social, Psychological Limitations such as serious concerns about identity, rights, and human dignity, fear of exploitation or misuse of cloned human, moral debates in science and religion. Followings are successful findings of current cloning method (somatic cell nuclear transfer)

➢ Animal cloning (e.g., Dolly, the sheep)

➢ Human cells and tissues grown in labs (for medical research)

➢ Stem cell technology.

Stem cell therapy;

Stem cell therapy is just regenerative medicine, aims to repair or replace damaged tissues using stem cells that can regenerate, differentiate into specific cell types (like muscle, nerve, or blood cells) and restore function. It is used for blood and immune disorders, neurological diseases, diabetes, heart, stroke, arthritis, injuries or anti-aging are not approved and remain experimental.

In accordance with Buddhist Abhidhamma, there are four types of matters in the form of living beings including kamma, Mind, Season (Temperature) and Nutrient Borne Matters. These human, animal clones, stem cells and tissue also include these four matters. Though these are initially produced by biological and experimental technologies, these will be fully alive only in body of living beings because of integrated effects of all four matters.

(11) Organ Transplantation

Organ transplantation is a medical procedure in which a healthy organ or tissue is transferred from one person (a donor) to another person (a recipient) to replace an organ that has failed or is severely damaged.

Organ transplantation can significantly improve quality of life and, in many cases, save lives for people with end-stage organ failure. It represents the reorganization of material conditions that can support life and well-being, while organ donation itself may be regarded as an act of generosity and compassion. Common transplanted organs include Kidneys, Liver, Heart, Lungs, Pancreas, Intestines. Tissues that can also be transplanted include Corneas (from the eye), Skin, Bone marrow (stem cells), Bone, Tendons, and Heart Valves.

There are two main sources of donated organs, involving the Living and Deceased donors. Living donors is a living person who donates an organ or part of an organ, such as one kidney or part of the liver. Deceased donors means organs are donated after a person’s death, usually with prior consent or family authorization.

Organ transplantation can be reflected in terms of Buddhist concept of the nature of material phenomena, their causes, and their relationship to consciousness and life. In Abhidhamma, the material phenomena arise from four causes including Kamma-born matter (kammaja-rūpa) produced by past kamma, Mind-born matter (cittaja-rūpa) produced by consciousness, Temperature-born matter (utuja-rūpa) produced by heat or temperature, Nutriment-born matter (āhāraja-rūpa) produced by nutrition. The transplanted organs consist of the collection of material phenomena that arise and perish continuously according to natural laws rather than a permanent entity or self. These are known as Kamma Passaya Utuja Rūpa produced by past kamma and heat or temperature. Although these organs constitute of all four types of matter in living donor, before transplantation, there is only one type of Temperature-born matter (utuja-rūpa) when transplanted.

However, there return into all four types of matter after transplantation. Once transplanted, the donated organ becomes integrated into the recipient’s body and continues to exist through the support of the recipient’s kamma, consciousness, temperature, and nutriment. The transfer of an organ does not involve the transfer of a soul, self, personality, or consciousness because these do not exist as permanent entities. Consciousness (citta) arises and ceases moment by moment and is dependent on conditions. Therefore, receiving another person’s organ does not mean receiving that person’s mind or identity.

Furthermore, the Abhidhamma teaches that life is maintained by the interaction of mental and material phenomena (nāma-rūpa). When an organ transplant restores bodily function and supports the continuation of life, it may be understood as providing favorable material conditions for the continuation of the recipient’s psycho-physical process.

(12)Biomedical effects in Practice of Meditation

Mindfulness meditation can influence several hormones and chemical mediators involved in stress, mood, attention, and overall well-being.

1. Cortisol (Stress Hormone)

Cortisol is released by the adrenal glands during stress.Regular mindfulness practice is associated with lower cortisol levels, especially in people experiencing chronic stress. This may lead to reduced anxiety, lower perceived stress, improved emotional regulation

2. Adrenaline and Noradrenaline

These hormones prepare the body for the “fight-or-flight” response. Mindfulness activates the parasympathetic nervous system (“rest-and-digest”), which can reduce excessive release of these stress chemicals. Effects may include Lower heart rate, Reduced blood pressure, Greater calmness.

3. Serotonin

Serotonin helps regulate mood, sleep, and appetite. Some studies suggest mindfulness may increase serotonin activity indirectly. Potential outcomes involves Improved mood, Reduced depressive symptoms, Better sleep quality.

4. Dopamine

Dopamine is involved in motivation, reward, and attention. Meditation has been associated with temporary increases in dopamine release during practice. This may contribute to Enhanced focus, Feelings of well-being and Greater motivation.

5. Melatonin

Melatonin regulates sleep-wake cycles. Some research suggests meditation can increase nighttime melatonin production. Possible benefits are Easier sleep onset, Improved sleep quality.

6. Oxytocin

Oxytocin is linked to social bonding, trust, and compassion. Loving-kindness and compassion-based mindfulness practices may increase oxytocin activity. Effects may include Increased empathy, Better social connection, Reduced feelings of loneliness.

7. Inflammatory Chemical Mediators

Mindfulness can also affect signaling molecules involved in inflammation: Reduced levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6 (Interleukin-6), TNF-α (Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha),CRP-related inflammatory activity. This may support Better immune regulation and Reduced chronic inflammation. After weeks to months of regular mindfulness meditation (typically 10–30 minutes daily), many people experience Lower stress hormone activity (cortisol, adrenaline), Improved mood-related neurotransmitters (serotonin, dopamine),Better sleep regulation (melatonin),Increased social and emotional well-being (oxytocin), Reduced inflammatory signaling.

In reflection, meditation helps regulate the body’s stress-response systems and brain networks, which then influence hormone and neurotransmitter balance. Meditation serves as a practical method for observing the relationship between mental states and physiological processes. It provides the observable proofs for influence of mind over matter in life as accepted in Buddhism.

Conclusion

This study has demonstrated that the Buddhist understanding of life, particularly as presented in the Abhidhamma, offers a distinctive and ethically significant perspective that can contribute meaningfully to contemporary medical ethics. Unlike the predominantly biological approach of modern medicine, Buddhism defines life through the interdependent relationship of consciousness, mentality, materiality, and the life faculty. Life is understood as a dynamic process governed by causality, kamma, and moral responsibility rather than as a purely physical phenomenon.

The comparative analysis revealed both convergences and divergences between Buddhist and biomedical views on conception, life processes, and death. While biomedical science provides valuable empirical knowledge for diagnosis and treatment, Buddhist philosophy adds important ethical dimensions by emphasizing intention (cetanā), compassion, non-harming (ahiṃsā), and respect for sentient life. These principles offer useful guidance for addressing complex bioethical issues.

The findings suggest that Buddhist thought can enrich contemporary ethical discussions by providing a holistic framework that integrates physical, mental, and moral aspects of human existence. Rather than opposing scientific knowledge, the Buddhist perspective complements it by encouraging greater ethical reflection on the consequences of medical decisions for individuals and society.

Therefore, dialogue between Buddhist philosophy and modern medicine can contribute to more compassionate, responsible, and ethically informed healthcare practices in an increasingly complex biomedical world resulting in a peaceful society.

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